Families of Children With Disabilities a Review of Literature and Recommendations for Interventions
Introduction
In humans, parenting represents a fundamental factor to promote the physical, socio-emotional, behavioral, and cerebral evolution of infants and children (Perrin et al., 2016; Provenzi et al., 2018). The function of parenting is much more relevant when infants and children nowadays special healthcare needs due to neurodevelopmental risk or disabilities (Festante et al., 2019). Recent research shows that maximizing parental appointment and targeting parents' caregiving skills aslope infants' needs and disabilities are crucial for the success of early rehabilitation programs (Britto et al., 2017; Schuster and Fuentes-Afflick, 2017). Early parenting interventions are benign to improve developmental outcomes of infants and children and to limit some of the detrimental effects that special healthcare needs accept on the quality of parent–kid interaction (Spittle et al., 2015). In this article, nosotros will review a specific arroyo to early parenting intervention (i.e., the video feedback intervention) and its application in children with special healthcare needs.
In 2016, about 53 million children worldwide received a diagnosis of neurodevelopmental disabilities (ND), representing 13% of all health issues in childhood (Olusanya et al., 2018). These children are a heterogeneous population with a variety of clinical diagnoses (e.g., cerebral palsy, sensory and/or psychomotor filibuster, genetic syndromes), which include several deficits that emerge very early in life (Ismail and Shapiro, 2019). Indeed, although diagnoses may vary, infants with ND partially share developmental impairments in physical (e.yard., sensory deficits and motor development), emotion-behavioral (e.g., internalizing/externalizing problems), and cognitive domains (east.g., diminished attention span). As a outcome, children with ND can exhibit significant delay in two or more of the following developmental domains: gross/fine motor, speech/linguistic communication, noesis, social/personal, and activities of daily living. A significant delay in two or more developmental domains affecting children under the historic period of 5 years is termed global developmental delay (Shevell et al., 2003). The presence of ND can have an impact on early interaction with caregivers, then that naturally occurring engagement processes are challenged and partially impeded (Spiker et al., 2002; Feniger-Schaal et al., 2019). For parents of these children, caregiving is much more than complex than in typical development weather (Giusti et al., 2018). First, parents face a significant emotional brunt manifested every bit high levels of parenting stress, depressive and anxious symptoms (Findler et al., 2016). Second, the communicative signals of children with ND may be less articulate for the parents to be interpreted and responded appropriately (Pennington and McConachie, 2001). In plough, less clear signals from the kid might result in heightened parental intrusiveness, in the effort to provide the child with regulatory and physical support (Azad et al., 2013). Moreover, these interactive and relational difficulties can ultimately increase the chance of developing behavioral problems in children (Spittle and Treyvaud, 2016). Importantly, several studies take documented that the quality of parenting is associated with children's developmental outcomes, fifty-fifty in the presence of ND (Spiker et al., 2002; Assel et al., 2003; Festante et al., 2019). It has been shown that, abreast social interaction and emotional support, parents also provide cerebral stimulation during their exchanges with their children, with long-term benefits for cognitive, language, and socio-emotional outcomes up to preschool- and school-age (Anderson et al., 2013; Innocenti et al., 2013; Totsika et al., 2019). Parental responsiveness and teaching associate with the developmental caliber of 23- to 47-month-old children with various ND (Vilaseca et al., 2019a). Notably, both paternal and maternal caregiving have been associated with better cognitive and linguistic communication in evolution in preschoolers with ND (Vilaseca et al., 2019b). Equally such, early supportive interventions directed at improving the quality of parental caregiving and parent–infant interaction should be prioritized even in this population (Dyches et al., 2012; Spittle et al., 2015).
The Video Feedback Intervention (VFI) includes an assortment of procedures aimed at promoting positive parenting, which rely on theoretical principles of baby research tradition and have been used equally stand up-lonely interventions or within extensive treatment programs at home or in infirmary settings (Rusconi-Serpa et al., 2009; Groeneveld et al., 2011). VFI allows the parents to notice themselves "from the exterior" equally they interact with their own child. By promoting self-confrontation through video feedback review, the VFIs positively impact caregiving, with benefits for parental sensitivity and interactive attunement (Bakermans-Kranenburg et al., 2003). Different theoretical and methodological approaches to VFI are described in literature (e.g., Cohen and Beebe, 2002; Juffer et al., 2005, 2017; Schechter et al., 2006). Previous research has highlighted that VFI is associated with better child evolution and parent-child human relationship in different clinical contexts, including children at take a chance for behavioral issues (Velderman et al., 2006; Balldin et al., 2018), preterm infants (Hoffenkamp et al., 2015; Barlow et al., 2016), hearing impairments (Santos and Brazorotto, 2018), maternal psychopathology (Rackett and Macdonald, 2014; Høivik et al., 2015; Kristensen et al., 2017), and ethnic minorities (Yagmur et al., 2014). However, evidence on the furnishings of VFI in families of children with ND is thin and lacks systematization. In light of this gap, this study aims (a) to draw the country of the art of VFI application in the presence of ND; (b) to synthesize VFI practice in this context on kid and parent outcomes every bit well every bit on the quality of parent–child human relationship; and (c) to highlight open questions for future research and reproducibility.
Methods
Literature Search
The literature search was conducted on three databases (i.due east., PubMed, Scopus, and Spider web of Scientific discipline) with unconstrained time limits. A search cord with an intentionally wide scope was used, with the following terms: (video feedback OR video-feedback) AND (infants OR children). The records were checked for duplicates using Endnote X5.01 (Thomson Reuters Scientific Inc., Carlsbad, CA, United States). The remaining papers were then filtered by two contained authors (i.e., ER and EM) by reading titles, abstracts, and the total articles. The presence of any neurodevelopmental risk (e.thousand., prematurity) or disability conditions with or without sensory damage (east.thousand., hearing and visual) was checked through title/abstract screening as well as reading the full articles. Exclusion criteria were not-English language articles, beast studies, reviews, viewpoint papers, report protocols, absence of neurodevelopmental disability or sensorial deficits, and papers not focusing on parent–kid relationship. Iii boosted records have been included through cross-referencing. The whole study choice process is reported in Figure 1.
Effigy 1. Flowchart of study choice.
The methodological quality of the included papers was assessed using the Quality Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies (Jackson et al., 2005). Sections A–F (A, selection bias; B, report design; C, confounders; D, blinding; Eastward, information collection methods; F, withdrawal and dropouts) were coded by two independent researchers (i.eastward., ER and EM) as 3 (weak), 2 (moderate), or ane (strong) according to the component rating scale criteria. A final 1–3 score is assigned to each paper according to the presence of 2 or more weak scores (3, weak), merely 1 weak score (2, moderate), no weak scores (1, strong). Ninety-six per centum agreement was reached for the A–F components, and disagreement was more often than not due to different interpretations of studies. Disagreement was solved in conference by the supervision of the 3rd author (RM). Quality appraisal is reported in Table 1.
Table one. Quality appraisal of the included studies.
Data Abstracting
A final pool of 10 studies was selected (Table two). The records were reviewed, and the post-obit information were extracted: authors, year of publication, journal, children characteristics, maternal characteristics, age at showtime, process, setting, number of sessions, frequency of sessions, result variable(s), and findings. Data were analyzed according to the aims of the present review. Nosotros decided to abstract data about infants' characteristics related to the ND condition considering previous research suggest that parents' well-beingness AND/OR parent–infant interaction is affected by the severity of infants' clinical status (Smith et al., 2001). Similarly, the quality of parenting and the effect of parental caregiving may also vary as a function of infants' age (Woolfson and Grant, 2006); as such, we abstracted the historic period of infants at the start of the included VF interventions. Setting was too abstracted, because parent–children interaction may be unlike at home or in lab environments (McWilliam et al., 2000), and it would be important for us to certificate if these VF interventions take been provided at dwelling or in hospitals/rehabilitation centres. Finally, the number and frequency of sessions accept been abstracted to control for the different effect of these procedural characteristics on the outcomes.
Tabular array 2. Characteristics of the studies included in the review.
Data Synthesis
First, (a) an in-depth description of different VFI approaches and methodologies is reported, including theoretical underpinnings, techniques, procedures, setting, and timing. 2nd, (b) effects of VFI on kid outcomes, parental well-being, and the quality of parent–child interaction were reviewed. Finally, (c) inconsistencies in methodology were highlighted to inform futurity enquiry advances and clinical practice.
Data synthesis occurred co-ordinate to the following clusters: (1) children characteristics, (2) VFI methodology (i.east., procedures, setting, and sessions), and (3) outcomes for kid development, parental well-being, and parent–kid interaction.
Findings
VFI State of the Fine art and Methodology
Characteristics of Participating Subjects
The included studies focused on different ND, including cognitive palsy, genetic syndromes with psychomotor delay or not-specified developmental delay (Mahoney and Powell, 1988; Seifer et al., 1991; Kim and Mahoney, 2005; Phaneuf and McIntyre, 2007, 2011; Sealy and Glovinsky, 2016), visual disability (Platje et al., 2018), and hearing problems (Glanemann et al., 2013; James et al., 2013; Lam-Cassettari et al., 2015). Children's historic period widely varied among the included studies: the VFI was delivered during the starting time years of life (from 2 to 36 months) in four studies (Mahoney and Powell, 1988; Seifer et al., 1991; Glanemann et al., 2013; James et al., 2013), during preschool historic period in 5 studies (Phaneuf and McIntyre, 2007, 2011; Lam-Cassettari et al., 2015; Sealy and Glovinsky, 2016; Platje et al., 2018), and upward to 8 years of age in a mixed sample of preschool and school-anile children (Kim and Mahoney, 2005). A schematic overview of the findings from the original records is included in Supplementary Table S1.
VFI Approaches: Procedures and Methodology
Video-Feedback Intervention protocols varied in terms of setting, primary target themes, and timing of sessions. The Transactional Intervention Programme (TRIP) is an early on home-based intervention for parents of 0- to 3-year-quondam children to promote responsive parenting, by encouraging parents to adopt specific strategies in their daily interactions with their child (Mahoney and Powell, 1988). Main themes include plow-taking and interactive matching. The TRIP video feedback is practical every vi–10 weeks. The Relationship-Focused Intervention (RFI) (Kim and Mahoney, 2005) is a dwelling house-based iii-calendar month-long intervention made up of four components: classroom-based instruction, dwelling house-based instruction, video feedback, and evaluation. The video feedback is implemented for two sessions. Equally for the TRIP, turn-taking and interactive matching strategies are the main target themes. The dwelling-based Individualized Video Feedback (IVF) consists of a 3-session program over a vi-week catamenia, providing feedback to the parents on the strengths and weaknesses of their interactive behaviors (Phaneuf and McIntyre, 2007). The Video Interaction Guidance (VIG) is a 3-session intervention aimed at facilitating the institution of parental feelings of bonding toward the infant after birth. The VIG may be practical at home- and in infirmary settings (James et al., 2013; Lam-Cassettari et al., 2015). The VIG standardized protocol (i.e., video-recording, editing, and reviewing edited recordings with parents) includes preliminary sessions in which therapist and parents co-define the intervention's goals. A three-tier model of intervention is used by Phaneuf and McIntyre (2011) that consists in self-administered reading fabric, group training, and individualized video feedback sessions based on strengths and weaknesses of the parents and children behavior. The Developmental Individual-difference Relationship (DIR) focuses on parental attunement to kid's sensory processing abilities (i.e., the way each child takes in, regulates, responds to, and understands sensory stimulations) in order to reinforce co-regulation processes and to reduce disruptive interactive sequences (Sealy and Glovinsky, 2016). Complimentary play interactions between the parent and the kid are video-recorded in the hospital setting for subsequent dialogic sessions with the therapist. The number of sessions is not fixed. The Video feedback Intervention to promote Positive Parenting in parents of children with Visual or Visual-and-intellectual disabilities (VIPP-5) (Platje et al., 2018) is a abode-based plan adapted from the original VIPP from Juffer et al. (2005). Upward to seven sessions with varying time intervals focus on specific predetermined themes including exploration versus attachment behavior, speaking for the child, sensitive interactive exchanges, and sharing emotions. An additional focus of interest includes quality of interaction, intersubjectivity, and articulation attending. The Muenster Parental Program (MMP) was developed to heighten responsive parental behavior to the child's vocal and not-exact signals, and to reduce parental behavioral intrusiveness (Glanemann et al., 2013). The MMP is composed of half dozen grouping sessions and two individual preparation sessions, and it focuses on the post-obit themes: waiting for the kid's initiation, following the child's involvement, mirroring vocal and preverbal signals, mirroring the child's non-verbal signals (movements and actions), and offering expanding feedback. Finally, Seifer et al. (1991) used a hospital-based VFI coaching program that lasted for six weekly sessions and focused on dimensions of reciprocal interaction, non-contingency, and overstimulation.
Touch on of the VFI in Neurodevelopmental Disability
Effects on Child Behavior and Developmental Outcomes
Significant reduction of aggressive, disruptive, and emotionally negative behaviors was reported past Phaneuf and McIntyre (2011) in 2- to 4-year-onetime children with ND. In children with hearing impairment, behavioral problems were establish to significantly decrease at the post-intervention assessment with long-lasting effects up to the iii-month follow-upward (James et al., 2013). Increased communicative skills and higher developmental caliber were reported by Seifer et al. (1991) in a sample of children with ND. Likewise Glanemann et al. (2013) plant an increase in phonation behavior in 3- to eighteen-month children with hearing loss whose parents had participated in the training. James et al. (2013) showed that children with moderate-to-severe ND (i.e., Downward syndrome, undetermined cerebral impairment) whose parents attended the VFI increased song autonomy, chatty, and vocal productions and were more able to actively interact with the caregiver. Moreover, after the intervention, children with prelingual deaf and hard of hearing showed a better interactive beliefs in terms of involvement and responsivity with parents (Lam-Cassettari et al., 2015). Finally, in 2- to 32-month ND children, a higher developmental caliber in clan with VFI was also documented by Mahoney and Powell (1988).
Effects on Parent–Child Relationship and Parental Interactive Behavior
The majority of the studies were aimed at modifying maternal behavior in the context of female parent–child interaction. Withal, different dimensions of maternal caregiving take been targeted by the diverse VFI approaches, such every bit interactive turn-taking and matching, contingency and responsiveness, amount of stimulation and intrusiveness, melancholia beliefs, scaffolding of verbal communications and attention, and reduction of inappropriate behaviors. The VFI has been constitute beneficial to promote better turn-taking strategies, college matching, improve reciprocity and college responsivity (Mahoney and Powell, 1988; Seifer et al., 1991; Glanemann et al., 2013; Sealy and Glovinsky, 2016), the capacity to promptly and contingently reply to the child'due south chatty bids (Kim and Mahoney, 2005; James et al., 2013), the adoption of affective behaviors as well every bit positive strategies to support child behavioral stability (James et al., 2013; Phaneuf and McIntyre, 2011), and the ability to give meaning to children'south behaviors (i.e., reflective functioning; Sealy and Glovinsky, 2016). Moreover, a reduction in the amount of stimulation and intrusiveness (Mahoney and Powell, 1988; Seifer et al., 1991; Glanemann et al., 2013) as well every bit in the adoption of inappropriate (Phaneuf and McIntyre, 2007, 2011) and hostile (Lam-Cassettari et al., 2015) behaviors was also observed.
Effects on Parental Well-Existence
The bear on of VFI on parental psychological wellness has received far less attending. Improved maternal well-being has been assessed and considered as a reduction in at to the lowest degree one of the following domains: parenting stress (Kim and Mahoney, 2005; Platje et al., 2018), capacity to develop an intimate bond with the child, feeling of enjoyment in the interaction with the child and cocky-esteem (Lam-Cassettari et al., 2015), and parental self-efficacy (Platje et al., 2018). An inconsistent pattern of results emerged. While two studies found a reduction in parenting-related stress in families of children with psychomotor delay (Kim and Mahoney, 2005; Platje et al., 2018), no meaning comeback has been documented in families of congenitally deaf and preverbal children (Lam-Cassettari et al., 2015).
Discussion
The present mini review was aimed at summarizing the evidence on the application of VFIs with parents of children with ND. The promotion of positive parenting and relational interventions is more and more advocated in the field of ND, every bit they have the highest probability of resulting in long-lasting protective effects on child development and family well-being (Spittle and Treyvaud, 2016). Moreover, it has been demonstrated that parenting interventions that start earlier preschool historic period are the almost effective, as they appear to exist associated with greater economical return for healthcare systems (Doyle et al., 2009). Notably, despite VFIs have been used successfully with different at-risk children populations (Hoffenkamp et al., 2015), only 10 records were retrieved, suggesting that, currently, the application of video feedback to the population of ND children is merely partially documented in scientific literature.
VFI With Infants Affected by Neurodevelopmental Inability and Their Parents: A Promising Supportive Intervention
All the studies included reported positive outcomes of VFI on ND children and their parents. First, positive effects on children's development emerged, including reduced behavioral problems, improved cerebral outcomes, and interpersonal functioning. Second, parents showed increased capacity to read and answer to children'southward signals, and there was a consistent positive effect on the quality of parent–infant interaction in terms of reciprocity and mutual regulation. Notably, these effects were documented in all the studies, independently of children diagnosis, degree of impairment, and age. Such cantankerous-disability effect speaks in favor of because VFI strategies as optimal early interventions that may be pursued both in hospital settings and in the family home environment. Notably, limited testify on the improvement of maternal well-being and emotional aligning emerged. Whereas only a express subset of studies (due north = 3) investigated the effects of video feedback methodology on parental stress, depression, and/or anxiety, information technology should exist noted that the main VFI target focused on parental skills and infant/child behavior. Improving children behavior (i.e., emotion regulation) and parental skills might be beneficial to reduce parenting stress in some cases. Nonetheless, the reduction of depressive and anxious symptomatology in parents may only be partially accomplished through interaction-focused interventions such as the VFI, especially when parents are facing the chronic and highly demanding ND weather of their child. Consistently, the lack of a directly effect in promoting parental psychological health suggests that the VFI should be integrated with other parent-directed interventions when concerns for parental psychological health are present.
Open up Questions for Clinically Relevant Inquiry
The above-presented findings generate several open questions that highlight the need of further evidence-based clinical exercise in children with ND. First, from a methodological point of view, co-ordinate to previous review on VFI in at-gamble children (Balldin et al., 2018), in the included studies emerged a couple of critical issues: depression specificity of programs with respect to the VFI features and heterogeneity among measures used for assessments. Thus, a major goal of future research might be the promotion of international consortia of clinicians involved in VFI practical enquiry with ND children. 2d, only four out of ten records obtained the highest quality appraisal score. This appears to exist related, at to the lowest degree partially, to the fact that many papers reporting on the issue of VFI with parents of ND children were single case studies. To increase the generalizability and reliability of findings, future enquiry should be directed at testing the consequence of VFI in properly designed randomized or quasi-randomized clinical trials. Third, there is notwithstanding a lack of studies assessing the effects of VFI involving fathers, rather than simply mothers. Fathers represent a crucial component of infants' primary care, especially in ND populations (Provenzi et al., 2016; Fisher et al., 2018). As such, the study of VFI bear on with fathers and/or engaging both parents simultaneously is highly warranted. 4th, the effects of VFI on both parenting skills and children development are generally cantankerous-disability, which is likewise suggestive of the possibility to acquit studies on the effects of such early interventions on children with specific NDs (e.yard., Down syndrome). However, selecting children based on specific diagnosis might issue in very express sample size and under-powered studies. Therefore, the present review suggests that future studies may avert using diagnosis-specific criteria for defining the parent–child population included in VFI trials, in order to have adequately powered study designs while maximizing the translational value. Finally, it should be highlighted that studies reporting on the furnishings of either stand-alone video feedback or parenting programs in which video feedback was role of a broader intervention were included in this review. Equally such, it was not possible to investigate the specific benefits of VFI when it was embedded in more complex and integrated intervention programs. Nonetheless, from a clinical perspective, the integration of different intervention methods constitutes an optimal strategy to reply to the multi-faceted needs of children with ND and their parents, especially in the presence of multiple run a risk situations and major clinical-care needs.
Conclusion
Promoting infants and children'south development through the active engagement of parents should exist a priority in the presence of children with ND (Guralnick, 2005; Schuster and Fuentes-Afflick, 2017). Family centred interventions directed at the parent–infant organisation should be promoted during the early on stages of infants' development (Schuster and Fuentes-Afflick, 2017) in social club to maximize their efficacy and to be beneficial for both families and the healthcare systems (Doyle et al., 2009). The VFI appears to be a very promising and effective approach. The present review suggests that specific parental behaviors (eastward.grand., sensitivity and contingent caregiving) and interactive features (due east.g., promotion of plough-taking and articulation attention) tin can greatly do good from VFI programs. Still, future research should exist directed at testing the effectiveness of VFI through appropriately designed randomized clinical trials. Moreover, the VFI should not be used in a one-size-fits-all approach and should be implemented carefully both in domicile- and hospital-based settings. The clinician's specific knowledge of typical and singular development besides every bit of mother–infant interaction is crucial, which means that VFI should be practical and delivered only past well-trained healthcare professionals with an acceptable background and experience in the field. Finally, the integration of VFI protocols with validated individual interventions directed at promoting either psycho-motor adjustment of children and parental emotional well-being should be pursued in clinical settings and adequately documented in future studies.
Writer Contributions
LP and LG conceived the study and wrote the get-go typhoon of the manuscript. EM, MC and ER were responsible for information collection and analysis. RM provided methodological supervision, reviewed and edited the writing. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript.
Funding
This study was supported past a grant from the Italian Ministry of Health (Ricerca Finalizzata 2016, RF-2016-02361884) to RM.
Disharmonize of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Marco Pessina and Romina Romaniello, child neuropsychiatrists at the Neuropsychiatry and Neurorehabilitation Unit of measurement, Scientific Institute, IRCCS Eastward. Medea, Italia, for their invaluable daily clinical support in their early parental interventions for parents of children with ND hospitalized at the Unit. They are also grateful to their colleagues at the 0-3 Centre for the at-Risk Infant for supporting them in everyday research activities.
Supplementary Material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/manufactures/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01374/total#supplementary-material
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